Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Final Examination Essay Example Essay Example

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Final Examination Essay Example Paper Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Final Examination Essay Introduction University of Waterloo Department of Electrical Computer Engineering ECE 231 Final Examination – Spring 2000 Aids: Formula Sheets (attached), Scientific Calculator Time Allowed: 3 hours Exam Type: Closed Book Instructor: C. R. Selvakumar Date: August 10, 2000 Max Marks: 100 Instructions: Answer all questions in PART-A and any two questions in full from PART-B. State your assumptions clearly. Be concise, precise and clear in your answers General assumptions to be made when not specified in a question: (a) Assume that the semiconductor is Silicon. (b) Assume that the temperature T = 300K c) Use the data given in the formula sheets where needed. (d) Use the following expressions for the Effective Density of States in the Conduction Band (NC) and in the Valence Band (NV) respectively: 3 2 3 3 3? m T? 2? 3? N C = 2. 5? 1019 cm? m 0 300? n? m? 2? T? 2 p?3 19 N V = 2. 5? 10 m 300? cm 0? PART -A 1a) Consider a Silicon p+-n diode with the following doping densities: NA = 1019 cm-3 an d ND is 1016 cm-3. The diode has an area of 100  µm by 20  µm. (i) Without doing any calculations, sketch the capacitance versus reverse voltage (VR) starting from VR = 0. (4 marks) (ii) Calculate the voltage at which you will obtain the minimum capacitance and also determine (calculate) the minimum capacitance at that voltage. (10 marks) (iii) Derive the mathematical relations you use in calculating the quantities in (ii) above. (16 marks) 1b) Assuming that the p+ region and the n-region of the diode described in 1a) above are ‘long’ compared to the minority carrier diffusion lengths in those regions, show how you would obtain the complete Current-Voltage (I-V) Characteristic of the diode. You can assume that there is no recombination in the space-charge layer and you need not solve the continuity equation. Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Final Examination Essay Body Paragraphs Sketch the electron and hole current distributions in the entire device. (10 marks) Page 1 PART B 2a) Draw a clearly labelled band diagram of an n-p-n transistor under thermal equilibrium and superimpose on it a band diagram of the same transistor when it is under normal forward active mode of operations. (8 marks) 2b) Derive an expression for the common emitter current gain $ ($ = IC/IB), in terms of the doping densities in the different regions, thickness and carrier diffusivities and diffusion lengths. Assume that there is no recombination in the neutral base or in the space-charge layers. Also, assume that the conventional reverse saturation current of the reverse-biased diode, IC0, is negligible. Assume that short-region approximation is valid in the base and that the bandgap narrowing in the emitter is important. No need to solve continuity equations and you can assume the expected carrier distributions. (12 marks) 2c) Obtain the modified Ebers-Moll (EM) equations from the orig inal EM equations given in the formula sheet. Sketch Common-Base output characteristics based on the modified EM equations and show the Forward Active Region of operation, Saturation Region and Cut-off Region. 10 marks) 3a) A silicon n-p-n transistor has an emitter doping NDE = 1020 cm-3 and a base doping NAB = 1016 cm-3. The emitter is 1  µm thick and assume that the hole diffusion length in the emitter is 0. 1 :m. The base is 0. 35 :m thick and you can use the values of mobilities and lifetimes given in the tables in the formula sheet to determine the electron diffusion length in the base. Verify that the short-region approximation is applicable to the base. Assume that the carrier recombinations in the neutral base an in the emitter-base depletion layer are zero. When this transistor is operating in the normal forward active mode with 0. volts forward bias across the emitter-base junction and a 2 volt reverse bias across the collector-base junction, what is the collector curren t density (JC) and the base current density (JB)? You can assume that the depletion layer thicknesses are negligible at both junctions. Assume that bandgap narrowing for the emitter doping is 100 meV and the room temperature is 300K. (15 marks) 3b) What is the emitter efficiency of the transistor in 3a)? (5 marks) 3c) What do you understand by diffusion capacitance of a diode? Show (derive) that the diffusion capacitance of a p+ – n diode is approximately given by C Diffusion? Qp Vt where Qp is the total injected minority hole charge on the n-side quasi-neutral=region and Vt is the thermal voltage (kT/q). Prove that the quantity Q p? qAL p pn 0 e V Vt (10 marks) Page 2 4a) Consider an n-channel MOSFET and explain how the MOSFET operates using key band diagrams (along source, channel and drain and vertically along the metal gate, oxide and the channel region) and cross-sectional diagrams. State clearly wherefrom the channel electrons come and explain how this is controlled by the gate voltage. (10 marks) 4b) With reference to an n-p-n transistor, explain what is Early Effect and how it arises. Using an approximate sketch show the Early Voltage. Clearly illustrate your answer with the aid of carrier profiles and common-emitter output characteristics. (10 marks) 4c) Contrast the Temperature-dependence of Avalanche Breakdown Mechanism and Zener breakdown Mechanism. Illustrate your answer with sketches of Reverse bias I-V characteristics giving physical reasons. (10 marks) Page 3 ECE 231 1/4 Formula Sheet C. R. Selvakumar ECE 231 Formula Sheet 3 1 4? 2 g c (E) = 3 (2m n ) ( E? E C )) 2 ; (E? E c ) h 3 1 4? 2 2 g V (E) = 3 2m p ( E V? E)) ; (E? E V ) h 1 f FD (E) = (E-E F )/kT 1+ e p 0 = N V e (E V? E F )/kT = n i e (Ei? E F )/kT () n 0 p0 = n 2 i 3/2? 2? m kT? p N V = 2 2h?  µn = q? c,n m n and  µ p = q? c,p m p? max =? qN A x p0? 0? r qN + x n0 D =?0? r 1/2 x n0? 2? r? 0 V0? NA = q N D (N A + N D ) 2? r? 0 V0? ND = q N A (N A + N D ) 1/2 3/2? p 0 + N + = n0 + N A D +2? N D? NA? N +? NA? D? + n2? +? n0 = i 2 2 +? N D x n0 = N A x p0 x p0 n 0 = N C e (E F? EC )/ kT = n i e (E F? E i )/kT? 2? m kT? n N C = 2 2?h kT? n no p po? kT? N + N A? D V0 = ln= ln q? n2? q? n2? i i p( x n0 ) = pn e qV / kT and? pn = pn ( e qV / kT? 1) 1/2 for n? type , where? c,n and? ,p are mean time between collisions? = qmn n + qm p p and r = 1/s dn? dp J n = q? n µn? + Dn? ; J p = q? p µ p D p dx? dx? D p Dn kT = = = 0. 0259 V at 300K  µ p  µn q n(? x p0 ) = n p e qV / kT and? n p = n p (e qV / kT? 1)? p( x n ) =? pn e or? p( x n ) =? pn ( 0) e? x p / Ln or? n( x p ) =? n p ( 0) e?n( x p ) =? n p e? xn / L p? x p / Ln? Dn? Dp? I = qA? n p0 + p n0? (e qV/ kT? 1)? Lp? Ln qN? C j = A? Si d 2(V0? V )? 1/ 2 for p +? n diffusion capacitance: C s = q 2 AL p kT p n0 e qV/kT for p +? n n? type regions of width, W: long base diode approx: I p = qAD p? pn ( 0 ) Lp short base diode approx: I p = qAD p?p 1 dJ p?n 1 dJ n =? + G? Rp; =? + G? Rn?t q dx?t q dx Wm = L p = D p? p and Ln = Dn? n VT = d 2V d 2= = where? = q ( p? n + N d? N a ) dx? 0? r dx dV 1 dE c 1 dE v 1 dE t?=? = = = dx q dx q dx q dx? xn / L p 2? Si ( 2? F ) qN a for VG Vth? pn ( 0 ) W? Si =? 0? r? Qd Qi + 2? F +? ms? , Ci Ci Q d = Q B =? qN a x dm ,x dm = Wm Ci = Cox = 0 ox = i t ox d 1 2 Z I D =  µ n Ci (VG? VT )V D? VD L 2?  µ n Ci? Z? 2 I DSat = (V? VT ) V Dsat = VG? VT 2? L? G ECE 231 2/4 Formula Sheet C. R. Selvakumar Eber-Moll Model (n-p-n transistor) I EBO (e VBE / Vt? 1) â€Å"RIC I CBO (e VBC /Vt? 1) â€Å"FIE? VBE VBC? I E =? I ES? e Vt? 1? +? R I CS? e Vt? 1 VBE VBC? Vt?e? + I CS? e Vt? 1? I C =? R I ES 1 ECE 231 3/4 Formula Sheet C. R. Selvakumar Mobilities in Silicon N = doping density (cm? 3 )  µ (N) =  µ min + Carrier type  µ0 N 1+ N ref :min :0 cm2 / (v. s) Nref cm-3 electron 88 1251. 8 1. 26 x 1017 hole 54. 3 406. 97 2. 35 x 1017 Doping density Mobilities Lifetimes (J) as function of doping density N :n :p 1 1 = + cA N2 SRH 1015 1016 1017 1018 1 019 1020 1322. 3 1218. 2 777. 3 262. 1 114. 1 91. 5 457. 96 437. 87 330. 87 43. 23 68. 77 56. 28 cm 2 v. sec cm 2 v. sec cm? 3 Doping density N cm-3 Lifetime J sec For both electrons and holes 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 9. 8 x 10-6 8. 3 x 10-6 3. 3 x 10-6 4. 5 x 10-7 3. 3 x 10-8 8. 3 x 10-10 Obtained using the above formula for lifetime using: JSRH = 10-5/(1 + 5 x 1016/N) and CA = 10-31 cm6s-1 ECE 231 4/4 Formula Sheet C. R. Selvakumar Properties of Silicon and Gallium Arsenide PROPERTY Si GaAs atoms or molecules/ cm3 5. 0 x 1022 4. 42 x 1022 atomic or molecular weight 28. 08 144. 63 density g/cm3 2. 33 5. 32 breakdown field V/cm 3 x 105 4 x 105 dielectric constant, gr 11. 8 13. 1 effective density of tates: Nc cm-3 Nv cm-3 Physical Constants?1. 38Ãâ€"10? 23 J / K? k8. 62Ãâ€"10? 5 eV / K 31 m0 9. 11Ãâ€"10 kg?0 8. 85Ãâ€"10? 14? r (Si) 2. 8 x 1019 1. 04 x 1019 4. 7 x 1017 7. 0 x 1018 11. 8? r (SiO 2 ) 3. 9 h electron affinity, eV 4. 05 6. 62Ãâ€"10 c 3Ãâ€"10 q 1. 6Ãâ€"10 4. 0 7 energy gap, eV 1. 12 1. 43 intrinsic carrier conc. , ni cm-3 at T = 300K 1. 5 x 1010 1. 8 x 106 effective mass electrons holes mn = 1. 1 m0 mp = 0. 56 m0 mn = 0. 067 m0 mp = 0. 48 m0 intrinsic mobility 300K electrons cm2/Vs holes cm2/Vs 1350 480 8500 400 diffusivity 300K: electrons cm2/s holes cm2/s 35 12. 5 220 10 F / cm 10? 34 J? s cm / s? 19 C We will write a custom essay sample on Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Final Examination Essay Example specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Final Examination Essay Example specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Final Examination Essay Example specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

Space Debris Problem

Space Debris Problem Abstract Apart from the looming climate change and global warming, the world is facing a disaster in her space infrastructure, if space debris continues to fill the orbit. Records from NASA shows that, over 19,000 of debris, which are more than 1 cm in size, have been tracked, but more is believed to exist that cannot be observed. Areas of great concern to astronauts are the Lower earth orbit and the geostationary earth orbit. This calls for hastening of mitigation measures to stop their increase and remove the space debris (Remer 1). Introduction The modern world stands to face various challenges if manmade objects orbiting the earth are not safeguarded. It is in this spirit that space surveillance networks have been established to track space debris or junks that may cause collisions to space orbits.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Space Debris Problem specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The United States has been credited with space debris tracking as the world tries to elude repercussions that may be associated with the ever increasing space junks (Remer 1). The world has witnessed several cases of space collisions, for example, the collision between a privately owned U.S. satellite (iridium) and a dead Russian satellite, on the 12, February, 2009. This collision led to destruction of both satellites and subsequent creation of more debris in the earth’s orbit. These additional junks are of great concern to astronauts as they can lead to further collisions with orbiting satellites. This research paper will explore space debris in detail, by defining it, why and where they are a problem, as well as how to track and mitigate their growth (Remer 1). Space Debris Space Debris, also known as Space junks are objects made by man that orbit the earth and are of no use in space. These particles usually orbit the earth and may cause concern when they meet a functioning satellite of spacec raft. The most recent estimation pieces of space debris as of 22nd March 2011, by NASA is 22000. This is quite frightening as these are the traceable space junks, and gives a clue on how much is untraceable. Such facts show how much the world is at risk of witnessing more collisions, which would worsen the situation (David 1). Another recent occurrence was the destroyed Chinese satellite which nearly caused collision with ESA’s (European Space Agency) satellite. It is claimed by orbital debris experts that the two mentioned collisions alone increased space debris by about 50% (David 1). Space debris refers to the various particles that get discarded in the earth’s orbits by manmade objects. They include bolts, nuts, collision discards, slag, rocket motors, paint flakes, dust and coolants from satellites, among other materials that litter the earth’s orbit. These materials orbit around the earth and pose great danger to satellites. These particles also have the p ropensity to erode parts of spacecrafts and satellite, leading to more fragments in pace. Probability of collision with spacecraft tends to increase as more objects are discarded in the orbits since they overlap spacecraft trajectories. The earth’s orbit is divided into two, the high and low earth orbits. These orbits are all polluted by space debris and flight engineers are tasked with the responsibility of tracking them to avoid further collisions (Remer 1).Advertising Looking for research paper on astronomy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Why space debris is a problem Space debris, as has been stated above consist of the fragments, and discards from objects such as satellites and spacecrafts in space. These particles can erode parts of the spacecrafts and satellites on collision and have the capability of causing damage to the body of the objects traversing space. Since these particles cannot be traced all as may be desired, let alone taking them out of the orbit. They cause collision dangers to other satellites and spacecrafts in the orbit and have the potential of increasing debris in space, which would increase the likelihood of collision and hence affect the normal operation of space objects that are of great importance to the earth. Weather and satellite information received from space are important to science, communication, aviation and astronomy (Remer 1. Areas of concern Several countries are already exploring ways of removing space debris from the orbits; this is because of rise in concerns on their space infrastructure. One of the areas of great importance in space is the (GEO) geostationary orbit, which is uniquely place for satellites that can orbit at the same rate as that of the earth. In essence the satellites tend to be stationary, relative to the earth’s rotation. This makes it unique for weather and communication satellites which are the basis of space scien ce (Remer 1). Another area of concern is the pollution of LEO (Low Earth Orbit). This is mainly because the universal orbits are few and it is these universal orbits that can keep spacecrafts on specific rings. The layout of LEO satellites also make it difficult as they are place in numerous orbital planes. In addition, even though high altitudes tend to have fewer satellites, orbital decay is very slow (in millennia), and this makes it a prospective cause of concern in the future as the debris reaches their threshold (Whipple 517). Tracking space debris Given the high risk caused by space debris, several measures have been taken to ensure they are observable so as to help in avoiding collision. To achieve this, various technological researches have been carried out and special detectors developed for tracking purposes.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Space Debris Problem specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Th ese equipments include optical and radar detectors such as lasers and transit telescopes, among others. However, the use of these devices is limited as they can on trace objects of limited sizes. Another problem facing tracking of space debris include stability of such tiny debris in the orbit, this makes determination of orbits for (res of such satellites used are the EURECA satellite which was recovered by STS-57 Endeavor. Moreover, debris can be tracked using Gabbard diagrams. When satellite breakups occur, the group fragments that break are usually studied using Gabbard diagrams. Gabbard diagrams are scatter plots which use the altitudes of debris against orbital period to ascertain the points of collision as well as the directions taken after collision. These, method have limitations, especially with smaller space debris which are unstable in the orbits and tiny (Whipple 517). Mitigation Various countries such as the United Kingdom, United States, Russia, France and the likeâ⠂¬â„¢s have made several steps to counter the increasing danger caused by space debris increase. These steps include research studies on how to reduce manmade objects from the orbit, campaigns to raise awareness of the danger posed by these space junks, steps to mitigate growth of space debris, designing satellites that are capable of moving out of the orbits after use, also known as self-removal orbits. The other method is external removal, which is currently underway in its five-year implementation plan. In external removal, several ideas are still emerging with in-depth research being conducted to come up with the best way of removing space debris from the orbit. The current close call events tracked weekly is estimated at 13,000 and is expected to increase. According to Lewis, a researcher, the coming decade will present another 50% rise in space debris, with another estimation of four times increase by the year 2050 (Remer 1).Advertising Looking for research paper on astronomy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Mitigation of debris Growth These research findings have made it a priority to unearth ways of mitigating space debris. In growth mitigation, a number of proposals have been studied, some of which were successful, and these include change in Delta boosters, which eliminated their debris contribution. In 2007, United Nations Committee (COPUOS) published guidelines that were voluntary to countries wishing to minimize increase in debris. Several agencies such as ESA, NASA and ISO, among others have also implemented ways that would mitigate on debris creation. Robotic capture has also been proposed in this line, to mitigate growth (Remer 1). Self removal Requirements for GEO satellites to have the capability of removing themselves once they become useless have been proposed by ITU, to achieve this, adequate fuel would be required to power these satellites to their decaying orbits. Suggestions have also emerged to de-orbit satellites and tethering them for rolling after its lifetime has ended (Whipple 517). External removal It is in this method that there have been proposals to remove the debris from their orbits by various methods such as aerogel, unmanned space vehicles, laser booms and space shuttles among others. Most of these methods are still under studies, and their implementations are yet to take stage. Furthermore, the space shuttle accident that occurred has contributed heavily to the slowed development this process (Whipple 517). Summary Space debris has increasingly caused concern to most countries of the world, such as United States, European and Asian countries, among others. They have the propensity to erode body parts of spacecrafts and satellites when they collide as well as create more debris in the orbit which would increase the chances of other collisions. These objects are usually manmade materials discarded in the orbit or dead satellites. Areas that require high alert are the LEO and GEO which have many satellites and stationed targets respec tively. Flight engineers and space agencies have stationed various tracking devices like optical and radar detectors, among others, used to track space debris. These devices are however limited to debris of sizes1cm and above, leaving several tiny debris unchecked. Various methods have been proposed to help mitigate growth of debris, as well as remove them from the orbit. Much effort still continues to be placed on space safety (Remer 1). Conclusion Space debris is increasingly filling the earth’s orbit, with prediction putting it at four times its present value by 2050. To avoid rampant collision, much should be done to mitigate its growth and remove the existing debris (Remer 1). David, Leonard. â€Å"Space Junk Mess Getting Messier in Orbit†. Space.com. 23.02.2011. 28.04.2011. https://www.space.com/7956-space-junk-mess-messier-orbit.html Remer, Lorraine. â€Å"Space Debris†. Earth Observatory. 12.09.2009.28.04.2011. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/4 0173/space-debris Whipple, Fred. â€Å"The Theory of Micrometeorites†. Popular Astronomy, Volume 57, 1949, p. 517.

Importance of Marketing on Organization's Goodwill Assignment

Importance of Marketing on Organization's Goodwill - Assignment Example G. and. Schneider, 1995). This is achieved by providing clients with company’s production. That’s why marketing is considered to be the one of the leading functions of the strategic management. For a great number of organizations marketing is the key function that secures their successful activity depending on how they follow their goals and which strategies they realize. Kotler & Keller (2012) state that according to the philosophy of management, the company should avoid just making unfavorable products trying to sell them to the client by all means, and in this case marketing is becoming something more than separate function of management (Kotler & Keller, 2012). In the modern world marketing influences all the spheres of company’s activity. The concept â€Å"goodwill† implies the readiness of the buyer to pay bigger or smaller sum of money than the net assets of the company that he wants to purchase may cost. The goodwill can be positive or negative. In many cases business owners tend to overestimate the influence of their intangible assets and as a result the realized value of business increases substantially (Massoud, M. F. and Raiborn, C, 2003). It is important to take into account the fact that intangible capital should convert into income and the index of this income should be substantially higher than the market average one. The given paper will discuss the importance of marketing for establishing goodwill. The review of literature will be implemented in order to answer the question. The main goal is to investigate the importance of marketing on organization’s goodwill Literature review a) The notion of goodwill According to Johnson and Petrone (1998), goodwill is a strong management team and developed market strategy, high level quality of production, high credit measures as well as corporate culture and favorable location, good relations with suppliers (Johnson and Petrone, 1998). Day states that â€Å"goodwill is the difference between the value of a business enterprise as a whole and the sum of the current fair values of its identifiable tangible and intangible net assets. Net assets are the assets that are left after subtracting the company’s liabilities. Goodwill is only recorded when its amount is substantiated by an arm’s-length transaction. Goodwill cannot be sold or acquired separately but has to be included in a purchase with the net assets of a business enterprise† (Day 2008: 1). It is clear that the cost of organization that is represented by the single property complex differs much from the assets and liability cost of the organization. The great amount of mergers and takeovers in the USA and Europe can serve as a proof of such statement. It is enough to recollect the time when companies were bought by the sums of money, which were considerably bigger or smaller than the cost of company assets (Samuelson, 1996). The difference between these two indicators is ca lled goodwill. It means that brand is less valuable in case if it fails the competitive struggle and does not allow to sell the product at the higher price than the similar product of the competitors is sold at. Accrodign to Stolley (2013), in this case goodwill is negative and has a negative impact on the final cost of the company. It can be easily explained as it will be more difficult to realize the production with the same tangible assets than with the positive goodwill (Stolley, 2013). b) The evaluation of goodwill According to Wang, the estimation is made with the help of management account and provides the owners and managers with the important information (Wang, 1995). In order to find the answer to the question, it is essential to determine how the goodwill is

Dye-Sentitised Solar Cells Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Dye-Sentitised Solar Cells - Essay Example ll (DSC), and their equivalence to process of photosynthesis5 6 Figure 2: Components of DSC11 10 Figure 3: common organic dyes with their conversion efficiency in DSC6 13 Figure 4: Molecular structures of Ruthenium based inorganic dye complexes18 14 Figure 5: Structure of Ru(II) NCS complex19 15 Figure 6 Photocurrent action spectra of bipyridine and Terpyridine dye along with photocurrent response of plain TiO2 films4 15 Figure 7: General structure of main betalain dyes extracted from red turnip and wild prickly pear. 1. Betacyanin, 2. Indicaxanthin. R1 and R2 = H (betanidin) or R1= ?-D-glucose and R2= H (betanin)14 17 Figure 8 Photoaction spectra of betalains from red turnip and wild prickly pear on transparent titania19 17 Figure 9: Photoaction spectra of Bchlorin 1 and Bchlorin 224 18 Figure 10: Iodide triodide redox couple25 19 Figure 11: Spirobifluorene4 20 Figure 12: Operation principle of DSC26 20 Figure 13 Current generation in DSC, step 1 21 Figure 14: Current generation in DSC, step 2 22 Figure 15: Current generation in DSC, Step 3, light absorption 22 Figure 16: Current generation in DSC, step 4 22 Figure 17: Current generation in DSC, step 5 23 Figure 18: Current generation in DSC, step 6 23 Figure 19 : Maximum voltage in DSC25 24 Figure 20: Kinetics of DSC operation. 25 Figure 21: A: Action spectra of Energy relay dye DCM alone and in combination with near IR sensitizing dye TT1; B: Molecular structure of DCM and TT128 27 Figure 22: porphyrin chromophore linked to dye29 27 Figure 23: Photocurrent density of TiO2 nanowires photoelectrode film as a function of measured potential (IPCE spectrum in inset)2 28 Figure 24: Absorptance spectrum (?) calculated from measured diffuse reflectance (Rd) and diffuse transmittance (Td) spectra of a cellulose template dye sensitized 6Â µm thick film of titania hollow fibers. APCE (absorbed photon to current conversion efficiency calculated from IPCE plot and ? plot 30 29 Figure 25: Hybrid nanosheets31 30 Figure 26 : Spectral response of photocurrent DSCs using T2/T- and I3-/I- as the electrolyte34 31 1.0 Introduction Energy is the basic need of all economies, whether developed or developing. For the past two centuries electricity requirements have been provided mostly by fossil fuels, which have two basic limitations: being non renewable and environmentally damaging . Considering the ever increasing demand of electricity that is expected to peak in coming years1 it has become imperative to explore alternative sources of energy which are not only renewable, but also eco-friendly. Of these, use of solar energy has been found to be practical and viable. The solar energy available to

Evaluate the main Problems Associated with Using Plastic Bags Essay

Evaluate the main Problems Associated with Using Plastic Bags - Essay Example As the report stresses in India non-biodegradable bags result in long-lasting litter at landfill sites. This is especially dangerous to wildlife away from areas of human population. Collecting plastic bags is not profitable for waste pickers in India, and this leads to plastic bags continuing to create a major threat to the environment. As a consequence the landscape of India is dominated by litter from plastic bags. Presently, plastic accounts for an estimated 10 percent of generated waste. This paper discusses that some of the litter that does not end up in landfills results in blocked drains and choked soil. Plastic bags are light and so they lead to blocked drains which results in water logging and nuisance to citizens. They can also lead to choked soil because they are non-porous, and do not permit the free flow of water and air, hence causing plants to choke. The rotting waste from pits generates methane. The toxins present are dissolved, permeates the soil and pollutes groundwater during monsoon rains. Plastic bags are photo-degradable instead of bio-degradable – which means that they break down into small toxic bits. This results in the contamination of the ground and waterways. This becomes a heath hazard to humans, animals, marine life and plant life. Suffocation as a result of plastic bag is not uncommon, especially in Malaysia. There have been accidental deaths, both among small children who play with shopping bags and adolescents who are solvent abuse rs. There have been instances of homicide cases, and the victims are invariably infants or adults who are frail or terminally ill and are not able to struggle or show resistance (Perez-Martinez et al 1993). Impact on plants, animal and marine life In India dumping grounds are filled, levelled off and converted into parks. Owing to the fact that the soil was predominantly plastic bags, the trees were not able to anchor firmly into the ground. The flora is destroyed due to the uprooting of trees from the high velocity winds that blow over the city during the

The Concept of Entrepreneurship

The Concept of Entrepreneurship INTRODUCTION CONCEPT OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP The importance of the development of entrepreneurial skills by every graduate cannot be over-emphasized because gone are the days when jobs were available everywhere both in the private and public sector of the economy and employers go about looking for potential employees to employ. Indeed, in the past, it is the employers that go round universities in this country to hunt for potential employees. Then there were fewer universities and low university enrolment. But today, things have changed and very drastically too such that many graduates are now sellers of recharge cards and some work as bus conductors. What an economic tragedy and waste! The question of choice of job or employer is gradually being eroded each year. Many graduates are desperate to get any job to keep body and soul going. Indeed there is a paradigm shift in the labour market now. Even the professional disciplines are now fast getting into that problem of unemployment. Employment prospects for the youths are changing with a lot of increasing competition; the openings are equally limited. Also, employment in the public sector is also decreasing and job prospects are diminishing by the day. Added to this ugly situation are the increasing trend of job outsourcing, casualization of labour in the oil and gas industry and the increasing phenomenon of rightsizing of labour among big firms and corporations in the country. As a side effect, the figure of tertiary graduates who have not been able to secure the first employment since graduation for upward of five years is on the increase and even those with professional qualifications like MBA, ICAN, COREN, Medicine and Pharmacy are not spared from the ugly phenomenon. Others are paid peanuts if they are lucky to secure paid job. Some now fall back on their lower qualifications like WASC and OND to secure menial jobs. The recent economic meltdown also has made matters worse. Some companies are as a result operating below expected capacity. The current troubles in the financial sector, particularly the money and the capital markets and their subsequent effects on the economy, particularly on the real sector as well as the remedial efforts of the CBN are very visibly glaring, instructive and challenging. Nevertheless, entrepreneurship and indeed the need for developing the requisite entrepreneurial skills have been suggested to help redress the aforementioned problems by making people not only to be job creators but wealth creators (Midea, 2004 ; Izedonmi, 2009). According to Small Business Service (2005), the possession of entrepreneurial skills to create new knowledge based social enterprises is vital to addressing social and environmental issues effectively. Our nation cannot afford to toy with it. Our tertiary institutions must respond fast and positively towards entrepreneurship education. However, general business skills and general knowledge are considered insufficient to turn graduates into entrepreneurs (Kisby, 2004). Hence, the need to develop specific entrepreneurship skills cannot be overemphasized .This is because entrepreneurship has been vital to creating employment and therefore a special form of employability (Moreland, 2004). Both the government and the academia hav e been attracted to it. In particular, universities are re-designing their curricula and the ways they operate to create opportunities for the training of their students in practical entrepreneurial skills. Due to the way entrepreneurial programmes have assumed a global proliferation and dimension, it was suggested by Volkmann (2004) that it has become the major academic discipline for business education in the 21st century. I totally agree with him. Economic Growth And Entrepreneurship Recent Survey Report in 2008 by the Kauffman Foundation in connection with the relationship between economic growth and entrepreneurship found that all nations with high level of employment activities had above average rate of economic growth. What this translates into is that entrepreneurial deficient economy will have low growth while entrepreneurially good economy tends to enjoy good growth. Hence, Government has come to recognize the importance of entrepreneurship in economic development that entrepreneurial ventures have in-built capacity to promote employment and economic growth. Literature Review One of the first courses specifically addressing entrepreneurship was established at the Harvard Business School in 1947.In the U.K, the first courses in entrepreneurship were launched in the 1980s together with the UKs first initiative for enterprise in higher education (Elton, 1991, Kirby, 1989 2005, Volkmann, 2004). Along this line, Fry (1992) remarks that entrepreneurship has been one of the fastest growing disciplines in the U.S.A in the 1990s.By the turn of the 21st century, as many as 1600 universities in the North-America were offering courses in entrepreneurship compared to merely two dozens in the 1970s (Inegbenebor, 2005). The growth of entrepreneurship education and the subsequent inclusion into the curricula of universities in the United Kingdom has been attributed to the sheer need to serve the innovation need of businesses and to produce graduates with transferable skills for businesses.  [i]   ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NIGERIA According to Ekanem (2005), the history and development of entrepreneurship in Nigeria started in the 1960s as supported also by some of the earlier studies such as Schatz and Edokpayi (1962), Harris (1969), Olakanpo (1968) and Akeredolu-Ale (1972). Therefore, the concept of entrepreneurship development in Nigeria is not new. Since the 1970s, several government agencies and institutions in the country have been engaged in different aspects of fostering entrepreneurship in Nigeria, though with short-lived and varied successes. For instance, the Centre for Management Development (CMD), National Directorate of Employment (NDE), former Nigeria Industrial Development Bank (NIDB), Nigerian Bank for Commerce and Industry (NBCI), Nigeria Youth Service Corps (NYSC), among others had programmes for entrepreneurship development in Nigeria. Other entrepreneurial development agencies include government sponsored Entrepreneurial Development Programme (EDP). NGOs, Nigerian Employers Consultative As sociation (NECA).The vigor with which it was pursued then is a different issue for our assessment. If the proofs are available even the blind and deaf can feel it. Only fools dont proof. What Does Entrepreneurship Really Entail? Basically, what entrepreneurship entails includes: The building of skills in negotiation Building leadership skill New product development Creative and innovative thinking and Exposure to technological innovation, (Kuratko, 2003). It shows students and graduates how to believe and behave entrepreneurially. It encourages them to get involved in networking, create and manage businesses of their own and facilitate progress and success in entrepreneurial career. Entrepreneurship could satisfy status and social needs and leads to self-satisfaction and actualization. It can also meet the financial needs for the entrepreneurs and their families. In fact, entrepreneurship is a satisfying process even though it can be risky and may even lead to loss of wealth at times (Fry, 1992). Society-wise, entrepreneurship has made substantial impacts throughout history because of numerous inventions, massive job creations made through small and medium scale enterprises (SMES) in both developed and developing countries. DEFINITIONS OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP Various definitions have been given for entrepreneurship. For instance Inegbenebor and Igbinomwanhia (2008) say that: Entrepreneurship is the process of performing the roles of an entrepreneur. It has been defined as the process of planning, operating and assuming the risk of a business venture. It may also be defined as the process of creating a clique value of pulling together a unique package of resources to exploit an opportunity. Entrepreneurship encompasses various activities which are carried out to ensure the survival and growth of the business Inegbenebor (2006) defines it as: it is about bearing the skills needed to assume the risk of establishing a business. It is about developing the winning strategies and executing them with all vigour, persistence and passion needed to win any game Ekanem (2005): Entrepreneurship is the process of or capacity for organizing, operating and assuming risk for a business venture. It is dynamic risk-taking, creative and growth oriented behavior which involves the use of various resources to create wealth Ekwe (1992): observes that, Entrepreneurship involves the: 1. ability to perceive profitable business opportunities. 2. willingness to act on what is perceived and 3. necessary organizing skills associated with a projects Fry (1992) says that Entrepreneurship involves action rather than static events. It involves taking action necessary to analyze opportunities to launch and/or grow business, to finance the venture and possibly even to invest the venture. Izedonmi (2009) placed entrepreneurship in a continuum form with economic entrepreneurship at the end of the continuum and social entrepreneurship at the other end. In between these you will find some varying characteristics of combinations. The process is also dynamic. In summary, the central issues in entrepreneurship involve uncertainty and risk-taking, innovation, perception and change. For instance, Drucker (1985) posits that innovation is the specification instrument of entrepreneurship. He argued further that the entrepreneurs must always change to respond to it, and exploit it as an opportunity. CHARACTERISTICS OF A DWINDLING ECONOMY The characteristics include: High unemployment rate High inflation rate Low average real income Low saving ratio or high consumption ratio Low levels of technology Low levels of productivity Low per capita income and downward trend of living High poverty rate of a large proportion of the population Low economic growth rate Poorly developed financial and stock markets High level corruption and instability and insecurity of lives and property Although the above factors and many others can be observed in a dwindling economy, they also provide good basis for entrepreneurial development. In fact, of these factors listed above, some can act as either pull or push entrepreneurial factors. Very often they provide good windows of opportunities for entrepreneurial-minded individuals. ROLES OF ENTRENEURSHIP IN REVIVING A DWINDLING SOCIETY Some of the roles include: Generating employment Increases productivity through innovation Facilitates the transfer/ adoption of technology Ensures increase resource utilization Stimulates growth in the supply market Renovates large scale enterprises and public enterprises Encourages and sustains economic dynamism that enables an economy to adjust successfully in a rapidly changing global economy. Linkage effects of various sections of the economy is facilitated Generate income and wealth occur faster Encourages training and development Ensures rapid development Develops indigenous entrepreneurship Provides a training ground for indigenous managers and semi-skilled workers Reduces rural-urban migration Constitutes a vital engine for economic growth development of a nation- increase GDP Skyrocketing of the emergence of SMES and Promotion of self-reliance and economic sustainability ELEMENTS OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP Entrepreneurship may involve the following elements IDEA GENERATION AND SCREENING This is actually the starting point of many new entrepreneurial ventures. Sources of ideas are many and varied. The sources notwithstanding, the would-be entrepreneur must cultivate the habit of documenting those ideas. It should be packaged in form of feasibility report, no matter what. STARTING A BUSINESS This could involve: a. Buying an existing business b. Starting from the scratch or start-up business c. Through Franchise d. By Inheritance CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION Innovation is the development and introduction of a new product, a new process, or a new service to a market. Creativity is the link between pure imagination and the introduction of an innovative product, process or service. Both are necessary ingredients for entrepreneurship. However, creativity is behind innovation. Creativity alone, does not define entrepreneurship. Creativity without innovation does not produce results. And innovation without effective management does not produce marketable products, processes or services. Although creativity and innovation are necessary ingredients, they are not sufficient of themselves to establish successful entrepreneurship (Fry, 1992, Izedonmi, 2009). There must be effective and efficient administrative structure on the ground and a healthy dose of management as well. 3. SEEKING FINANCING Financing could either be debt or equity financing, traditional or venture, internal or external capital. The would-be venture must consider financing the venture. Availability, cost and timeliness must be balanced. Starting small attracts small capital input. However, not all entrepreneurial ventures require start-up capital or equal amount either Creative financing is a basic tenet of entrepreneurship. A growth-oriented venture uses multiple sources of financing. You must be prepared to make your personal sacrifice in this respect. Too often, the banks will request to see your personal inputs in terms of financial commitment. Finance institutions only lend to ventures that have proven records, and history, and those ventures that are also promising economically. 4. ASSUMING RISK Every entrepreneur must assume one risk or the other. However, entrepreneurship is not necessarily risk-taking but risk-assuming. Corporate management deals in risk minimization, entrepreneurship deals in risk management. Corporate management too often generally tends to be risk-averse. They want to reduce risk to a minimum during production so as to be profitable. Entrepreneurship manages risk since it cannot be reduced significantly in entrepreneurial situations whether new or existing ventures. However, entrepreneurs are calculated risk-takers. Risk management involves the acknowledgement that risk exists and the actions that are taken to shift as much risk as possible to others and then control the remainder. Some risk Management ventures include Renting rather than owning equipment and facilities Using multiple sources of financing. Building an entrepreneurial team with distinctive skills. Undertaking multiple ventures simultaneously with varied degrees of risk. Committing a portion of the total resources to any one project. Assigning a team member the responsibility of monitoring short-term performance with the anticipation of cutting losses of early performance indicates unfavorable results. THE PULL AND PUSH ENTREPRENEURSHIP FACTORS There are various factors (negative or positive) which tend to provide the needed motivation in getting into entrepreneurship or becoming an entrepreneur. While the negative factors are called push factors; the positive factors are pull factors. Both factors provide the fundamental attraction either by necessity or by desire and opportunity into the entrepreneurial world. The push factors are: Unemployment / loss of job. Dissatisfaction with pay and job situation. Discrimination and victimization by boss in work place. Middle-age crises. Divorce / widowhood. Relocation. The positive pull factors are: Desire for independence. Desire for increase in wealth. Increased social status and prestige. Spouse support and motivation. Provision of market opportunity. Franchise. Provision of licenses by parent company. Favorable government policies etc. THE ENTREPRENEURSHIP DECISION The entrepreneurial motivation to launch a venture has been grouped into three variables (Fry, 1992) as: Antecedent variables. Triggering variables. Enabling variables. The antecedent factors They cause the individual to begin to consider the possibilities of entrepreneurship either consciously or unconsciously. This could take into consideration the variables listed below Creativity. Background. Personality. Past experience. Education. Current job. Triggering factors: These are the events or situations that specifically trigger the entrepreneurial act. They are salient life events may be quite personal , professional or for instance, financial changes in an entrepreneurs life that are perceived as very important to entrepreneurial decision may set off the alarm to take step. They involve: Loss of Job Invention or Idea Offer from partner Entrepreneurial motivation or willingness to start a venture (M) = Antecedent Variables (A) X Triggering Variables (T). The enabling factors These factors make the actual launching of the venture possible. They include opportunity and resources which are very critical to the successful launch of the venture. The likelihood of a venture launch is made up of these three factors combined. Our youths look outside instead of looking inward. Those who look inward first tend to travel faster on the outside. Several entrepreneurial opportunities exist in the environment. They need to look well to discover some opportunities. Our youths must be ready to start small, learn the ropes and grow up. Hard work, patience and deep commitment are necessary. ENTREPRENEURSHIP OPPORTUNITIES Entrepreneurship tends to be opportunity-driven rather than resource-driven. This is because that once opportunities are identified and properly evaluated resources are deployed to capture them. Opportunity creates or generates its kind of resources. There are thousands of opportunities available to would-be entrepreneurs who present high potential for wealth, growth, self-employment, independence, social status, and prestige. The would-be entrepreneur must conduct a thorough scanning and survey of the environment strategically. But if you do not have any readily available opportunity, you can creatively and innovatively come up with one. However, some of the sources of these opportunities could include: Self-discovery Improvement in the quality of existing product/ service. Use of an existing product/service in an untapped market Invention Consultancy Trade magazines, Journal and Business Newspapers Societal needs Survey of natural resources Government Agencies Research Institutes, Universities, e.t.c Spin-off Work experience Hobby and Vocation ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILLS REQUIRED TO TRANSFORM CHALLENGES INTO OPPORTUNITIES GENERAL BUSINESS SKILLS Entrepreneurial skills of successful entrepreneurs include: Sales and Marketing skills Financial Know-how skills Self-motivation skill Time management skill Administrative skill Sales and marketing skills To get the right customers and subsequently make target revenues and profits Include communication skills Financial know-how skills To know how to handle money well. After all, not everybody can effectively manage money. Source and manage funds and cash flows Self-motivation skills Internal locus of control Self-starter with a clear desired goal in mind Confidence in yourself and in your ideas Diligent and hardworking Extra drive and commitment to set goals Time management skills Time is money Time is life Entrepreneurship opportunity has time-limit Time management is very important for business success Self-management is very critical for effective time management TYPES OF BUSINESSES AND TIME MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Have a time table, schedule of activities to be done Employ delegation freely without fear Determine priorities into urgent and important activities as: Urgent activities demand immediate attention Urgent but not important activities Not urgent but important activities Not urgent; not important Give priority to (i) and (iii) because by performing them, time is reduced for activities (ii) and (iii) Manage meetings and relationship with others Administrative skills Organizing, coordinating, directing, planning and general management, etc. B). TECHNICAL, ANALYTICAL AND HUMAN RELATION SKILLS Entrepreneurs are expected ordinarily to be sound by training normally technically skilled. They must also develop and possess conceptual, analytical and human relation skills to be successful. Others are business planning, idea creation, negotiation, risk analysis and management skills etc. C). ICT SKILLS They must also have computer and information Technology (CIT) skills because of the era we are and the environment they will have to operate. ENTREPRENEURSHIP OPPORTUNITY AND SKILLS S/N ENTREPRENEURSHIP OPPORTUNITY SKILLS AND ATTITUDES 1. Business/consultancy in area of professional specialization or working as a contractor General Business skills such as marketing, time management e.t.c Confidence enthusiasm, hardworking 2. Sonet Entrepreneurship Idea development, leadership, negotiation, planning, organizing, self belief, confidence General business skill 3. Intrapreneurship Idea development recognizing opportunities for improvements Alliance building, confidence, leadership 4. Non-traditional specialist business General Business Idea development, creativity, confidence Willingness to work hard 5. General Business Ventures Ideas development, creativity, confidence, willingness to work hard General Business skill Source: Andrea: Developing Entrepreneurship skills in the context of higher education. http://cfiweb.cf.uk/news/past.events/bee/files/Andea. on 16/3/2010 DEVELOPMENT OF ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILLS These could be through: Attending Entrepreneurial training classes, development programme, seminars, workshops, etc. Universities Job rotation Special (intensive) training Article ship or apprenticeship Organizational learning R D Institution Consultants National and international agencies and bodies NGOs Professional bodies ENTREPRENEURIAL SUCCESS FACTORS Successful entrepreneuring depends on four (4) major factors namely: Knowledge Hard work Skills Attitude(character/ integrity) Lifematics Question Created by (Izedonmi, 2010) Now let us work out this lifematics question together. There are basically four (4) attributes or factors that can enhance our success in life viz: Skills, Knowledge, Hard work and character (Attitude). They are all essential to ingredients of entrepreneurial success. How much does each contribute? Which of these is superior and why? For easy understanding, let us replace character with attitude. Solution Our current roman alphabets are made up of A B C D E F G H I J K L M 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 The alphabets together with their numerical values are stated above. Let us take each attribute one after the other and link up the corresponding numerical value. Start with skill, then knowledge follow this with hard work and finally character but remember to substitute attitude for character. Let us replace numeric value to each alphabet and see their results as indicated below: (i) S K I L L S 19 + 11 + 9 + 12 + 12 + 19 = 82% (ii) K N O W L E D G E 11 + 14 + 15 + 23 + 12 + 5 + 4 + 7 + 5 = 96 % (iii) H A R D W O R K 8 + 1 + 18 + 4 + 23 + 15 + 18 + 11 = 98 % (iv) A T T I T U D E 1 + 20 + 20 + 9 + 20 + 21 + 4 + 5 = 100 % Solution Skills secure only 82 %, Knowledge 96 %, hard work 98 % and Attitude 100 % in that order. Only Attitude which I equate to character for this purpose secures 100 % success in the race of high profile entrepreneurship. Conclusion I must admit that professional certification is good but character is a lot better. Character is the true collateral security of our values, learning and entrepreneurial success. It keeps the society and system going. It prevents a nation from decaying and checkmates unnecessary crisis and even civil war. Therefore in all our entrepreneurial pursuit, character development should be given a prominent place. When character breaks down everything breaks down. True certification in life is only evidenced by character and not papers called certificates or entrepreneurial success alone or quantity of wealth.

Clusters In Business :: essays research papers

Competitive advantage is not created within a single firm alone. Efficiency in internal operations is essential but not necessarily sufficient to compete globally. Factors external to the business are increasingly important. Each firm is inherently part of a "cluster" of activities made up of firms along the value chain as well as related and supporting organizations e.g. research and development, finance, worker skills, infrastructure. In general, clusters are geographic concentrations of interconnected companies, specialized suppliers, service providers, firms in related industries, and associated institutions in particular fields that compete but also cooperate. A cluster may include industries that share similar workforce, input, or infrastructure needs. In addition, a cluster may have more to do with the output of the â€Å"cluster† industries. Clusters may also be defined by complementary or interdependent industries: one may produce what another needs. It has been demonstrated throughout the world that strong clusters ensure sustainable competitive advantage and that this strength has managed to help countries improve drastically on their global competitiveness. One region that is currently developing a very attractive multimedia cluster is San Francisco, California. The cluster is constantly evolving as telecommunications and computer technologies combine in a rapid fashion. Defined broadly, the multimedia cluster is the creators, producers, and distributors of software and hardware that integrate video, sound, text, and graphics. This integration is all done in a digital medium to produce a multimedia product or service. Currently there is an estimated 2000 multimedia or multimedia-related industry firms concentrated in the San Francisco area. The major components of the multimedia industry’s potential cluster in San Francisco are categorized as follows: Supplier Sector Technology providers - These are the producers of the enabling technology and include firms in computer hardware and software, consumer electronics, and digital communications. Examples include: Apple, Creative Labs Multimedia developers - These are the integrators and developers of the "media" itself and include artists, writers, programmers, animators, interface designers, and others. Examples include: Broderbund, Crystal Dynamics Content providers - These are the providers of information presented through multimedia and include film, TV and video entertainment companies, print publishers, news organizations, and information systems service providers. Examples include: LucasArts Entertainment, HBO Community Infrastructure These are the shared resources that contribute to and benefit from the multimedia potential cluster. This infrastructure is comprised of research labs, universities, training organizations, investors, associations, accountants, and other professional services providers that either contribute to the development of the product or engage in using the product.

Critical Theory Essay

Critical theory is a body of ideas generally associated with the ‘Frankfurt School’. It was during the early 1980s that a new form of theoretic inquiry which was highly critical of tradional theories of IR, emerged. However the genesis of the theory can be found in the works of Kant and Marx with their emphasis on the ‘emancipatry purpose of knowledge and enquiry’. In other words critical theory entails ‘enlightenment project’ which subjects knowledge and education to the ideal purpose of freedom and liberation. Jurgon Habermas gave a new life to the critical and emancipatory views of Kant and Marx when he questioned the epistemological(source of knoeledge) and ontological(nature of being) foundations of existing social order and said that all knowledge is historically and politically based. Critical theory also involves the critique of modernity in the domains of state capitalism, high-tech reindustrialization and science-cum-computer oriented education system that have strengthened and perpetuated the hegemony and dominance of few. Among the prominent critical theorists inclde Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Paulo Friere, John Forester, Herbert Mercuse, Andrew Linklater and Dieter Misgeld,etc,. Trends in Critical Theory: Following are important trends in critical theory: a) Critical Social Theory: The basic point of analysis in critical social theory is society as a whole. It seldom focuses on state. It discusses all the social structures which are responsible for dominance, ignorance and exploitation. Frankfurt Scool is the poineer of this trend. b) Critical International Theory: Critical international theory with its basis in emancipatory ideas of Kant and Marx seeks to look for the possibilities of tronsforming international relations so that constraints of dominance are removed and univaresal freedom and equality achieved. It is actually the extension of critical social theory to the domain of international relations. Key Aspects of Critical Theory: 1) Problem-Solving and Critical Theories: Problem-solving Theory: Accordinng to Robert Cox problem solving theory takes the world as it finds it.It does not challenge the present order but legitimise and affects its smooth working by solving the particular problems that troubles it. Traditional theories of IR are considered to be working in fever of stabilising prevailing structures of world order with their inequalities of power and wealth. 2) Critical International Theory: It argues that cognitive processes themselves are subject to political interests and, therefore, are to be critically evaluated. Theories of IR like any other knowledge are conditioned by social, cultural and ideological influence; and the task of critical theory is to evaluate such conditioning implications. It not only challenges the status-quo oriented theories but also comes up with normative solutions in favor of emancipation.

Free Essays on Different Views, Different Responses

Different Views, Different Responses A 'No' uttered from the deepest conviction is better than a 'Yes' merely uttered to please, or worse, to avoid trouble. Mohandas Gandhi The Dalai Lama feels sadness caused by the things that are brought onto his people. He sees that his people have been neglected, they were being starved to death. â€Å"I was losing control of my own people†¦they were being driven into barbarism†¦growing more determined to resort to violence†¦I opposed the people’s violent instincts† (108). â€Å"I could not help my people anymore; I could not control their wish to resort to violence; all my peaceful efforts so far had been failures† (118). After more and more people leave to fight with the guerillas, the Chinese were angry and complained a lot. â€Å"I was unhappy too at this turn of events† (130). â€Å"I must admit I was very near despair† (133). This was said after he had sent a mission to the guerillas and they never came back, they joined. The majority of the guerillas would not return to their homes. The people of Tibet surrounded the Norbulingka and he knew that the Chinese would fight with artillery and the Tibetans had simple weapons. The Dalai Lama was very upset when he learned that his people threw stones at a minister and an official was stoned to death because they thought he was Chinese. â€Å"This outbreak of violence gave me great distress† (143). â€Å"I felt as if I were standing between two volcanoes, each likely to erupt at any moment† (143). When his people say that they were not leaving the Palace, he knew if was going to be disastrous. â€Å"This development distressed me very much. I felt it was one step more toward disaster† (151). When speaking of his country he said, â€Å"I saw it in a daze of sickness and weariness and unhappiness deeper than I can express† (178). Dalai Lama keeps an optimistic view on everything and tries to maintain hope for his people an... Free Essays on Different Views, Different Responses Free Essays on Different Views, Different Responses Different Views, Different Responses A 'No' uttered from the deepest conviction is better than a 'Yes' merely uttered to please, or worse, to avoid trouble. Mohandas Gandhi The Dalai Lama feels sadness caused by the things that are brought onto his people. He sees that his people have been neglected, they were being starved to death. â€Å"I was losing control of my own people†¦they were being driven into barbarism†¦growing more determined to resort to violence†¦I opposed the people’s violent instincts† (108). â€Å"I could not help my people anymore; I could not control their wish to resort to violence; all my peaceful efforts so far had been failures† (118). After more and more people leave to fight with the guerillas, the Chinese were angry and complained a lot. â€Å"I was unhappy too at this turn of events† (130). â€Å"I must admit I was very near despair† (133). This was said after he had sent a mission to the guerillas and they never came back, they joined. The majority of the guerillas would not return to their homes. The people of Tibet surrounded the Norbulingka and he knew that the Chinese would fight with artillery and the Tibetans had simple weapons. The Dalai Lama was very upset when he learned that his people threw stones at a minister and an official was stoned to death because they thought he was Chinese. â€Å"This outbreak of violence gave me great distress† (143). â€Å"I felt as if I were standing between two volcanoes, each likely to erupt at any moment† (143). When his people say that they were not leaving the Palace, he knew if was going to be disastrous. â€Å"This development distressed me very much. I felt it was one step more toward disaster† (151). When speaking of his country he said, â€Å"I saw it in a daze of sickness and weariness and unhappiness deeper than I can express† (178). Dalai Lama keeps an optimistic view on everything and tries to maintain hope for his people an...

The Environmental Impacts of Droughts

The Environmental Impacts of Droughts As summer approaches, headlines about worrisome drought conditions usually dominate the news. All across the world, ecosystems from California to Kazakhstan have dealt with droughts of varying lengths and intensity. You probably already know that a drought means there is not enough water in a given area, but what causes a drought? And how do ecologists determine when an area is suffering from a drought? And can you actually prevent a drought? What Is A Drought? According to the National Weather Service  (NWS), a drought is a deficiency in precipitation over an extended period. It also occurs more regularly than you might think. Actually, almost every ecosystem experiences some period of drought as part of its natural climate pattern. The duration of the drought is what sets it apart.   Types of Droughts The NWS defines four distinct types of drought that vary depending upon their cause and duration: meteorological drought, agricultural drought, hydrological drought, and socioeconomic drought. Heres a closer look at each type. Meteorological Drought: This type of drought is defined by a lack of precipitation over a period of time.  Agricultural Drought:  This is the type of drought that occurs when factors such as lack of rainfall, soil water deficits, and reduced groundwater levels combine to produce conditions that do not allow an adequate water supply for crops.  Hydrological Drought:  When lake or stream levels decline and the groundwater table is diminished due to a lack of rainfall, an area may be in a hydrological drought.Socioeconomic Drought: Socioeconomic drought occurs when the demand for an economic good exceeds an ecosystems water-related means of sustaining or producing it. Causes Of Drought Drought can be caused by meteorological conditions such as a lack of rainfall or excess of heat. They can also be caused by human factors such as increased water demand or poor water management. On a wider scale, drought conditions are often thought to be the result of climate change that causes higher temperatures and unpredictable weather patterns. Effects of Drought At its most basic level, drought conditions make it difficult to grow crops and sustain livestock. But the effects of drought are actually much more far-reaching and complex, as they affect the health, economy and stability of an area over time. Droughts can lead to famine, wildfires, habitat damage, malnutrition, mass migration (for both people and animals,) disease, social unrest, and even war. The High Cost of Droughts According to the National Climatic Data Center, droughts are among the most costly of all weather events. There were 114 droughts recorded in the United States through 2011 that have resulted in losses in excess of $800 billion. The two worst droughts in the U.S.  were the 1930s Dust Bowl drought and the 1950s drought, each one lasted for more than five years affected large areas of the nation. How to Prevent a Drought Try as we might, we cannot control the weather. Thus we cannot prevent droughts that are caused strictly by a lack of rainfall or abundance of heat. But we can manage our water resources to better handle these conditions so that a drought does not occur during short dry spells. Ecologists can also use various tools to predict and assess droughts around the world. In the U.S., the U.S. Drought Monitor provides a day-by-day visual of the drought conditions around the country. The U.S. Seasonal Drought Overlook  predicts drought trends that may occur based on statistical and actual weather forecasts. Another program, the Drought Impact Reporter, collects data from the media and other weather observers about the impact of drought in a given area. Using the information from these tools, ecologists can predict when and where a drought might occur, assess the damages caused by a drought, and help an area recovery more quickly after a drought occurs. In that sense, they are really more predictable than preventable.

Management - Public Personnel Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Management - Public Personnel - Assignment Example These resources can either be local based, state based or internationally based. The functions of public personnel today can be extensively classified into 4 different areas namely: planning, sanctions, acquisition and development. To be effective, theses functions are implemented through different organizations such as state, federal, local government and NGOs (Disalvo, 2010). Four trends affecting Public Personnel Today The four trends that affect the performance of public personnel today are governance changes, economic changes, technological changes in the work environment and the role that is played by citizens in the process of governance. First and foremost, the changes experienced in the economy have resulted in paradigm shift from national to global, production to delivery of service and finally from public commitment to limited commitment. For instance, in the majority of the urban areas, more than half of the human resources are from private organizations and not the gover nment agencies. Also, in most of the states, the number of employees within the private security organizations far outnumbers those of the local police departments. On the second point that affects the changes in the governance structure, the government is being redefined and this redefining includes, changing the perception of the government relationship with its citizens including focusing attention on the citizen whereby the citizen is regarded as a customer. It also involves the creation of a government that requires less to operate but does more in terms of service to its citizens and its general performance. Thirdly, we look at the effect of technology and the workplace. Technology and the workplace environment are a source of concern in the area of public personnel. The area of Public personnel has been widely impacted by the changes that have been experienced in the field of Information Technology. From the introduction of concepts such as cyberspace to the creation of the m any platforms with which communication can now take place, advancements in this field have impacted greatly in public agencies. The way that employees of public agencies carry out their day to day functions has greatly changed due to the impact of information technology. It has also resulted in diversity among the employees and affected their work ethics and other previously held values. Finally, we look on the aspect of the role played by citizens in their governance; it is evident that citizens are now playing a vital role in governance. This is because citizens are do not only perform the role of being recipients of government services, but they are also actively involved in governance by making contributions to policies and other legislation that will directly affect their lives. This participation by citizens also ensures that the values of democracy are upheld by the government (Robinson & Kary-Siobhan, 2002). Four strategies needed to create a diversified workforce Diversity in the human race is a fact that cannot be understated in any form. When we come to the workplace environment, diversity can be seen in terms of age, gender, nationality, and race etc. It is imperative to understand this diverse nature in the workplace and this implies recognizing and also encouraging this fact in addition to appreciating the uniqueness of everyone in such an environment. The strategies needed for the creation of a diversified workplace include: increase in the

Nursing Cancer Patient Case Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Nursing Cancer Patient Case - Assignment Example Osteoporosis is a chronic progressive metabolic disease of the bone characterized by low bone mass and micro-architectural deterioration of the tissue of the bones (Serota and Lane, 2006). It affects 16% of women and 7% of men above 50 years of age (Tenenhouse et al, qtd. in Targownik, Lix and Metge, 2008). The most dreaded complication of fall in this age group of people is hip fracture. Burt is 68 years old. Aging is a natural physiological process and there are many changes which occur in the various organs of the body. The common health problems frequently encountered in the elderly are altered response to medication, altered nutritional status, urinary incontinence, urine retention, fecal incontinence, pressure ulcers, mood disorders, dizziness, dementia and functional impairment, immobility and impaired gait (Nettina, 2006). Elderly people are more prone to falls and fractures, cognitive dysfunction, postural hypotension, electrolyte disorders, cardiac failure and polypharmacy. Burt needs to be given several medications because of his health condition. Pharmacokinetics of the aged is different and hence the effects of the drugs are more. The factors which contribute to altered pharmacokinetics are decrease in lean body mass and total body weight, increased percentage of body fat, decreased protein binding of drugs, increase in volume of distribution for lipophilic drugs that penetrate the central nervous system, decline in the metabolic capacity of the liver, decreased liver mass and hepatic blood flow, decreased renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate. There may also be changes in the receptor numbers, affinity, and post receptor cellular effects. Along with these, there are also changes in the homeostatic mechanisms (Tregaskis and Stevenson, 1990). Dementia is a haunting problem amongst elderly who frequently get admitted to acute care settings for other health problems. Due to dementia, proper treatment is difficult to institute.